Copyright Protection for Industrial Designs - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 1995 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Industry Essay Type Analytical essay Topics: Act Essay India Essay Did you like this example? Copyright protection for Industrial designs in India Introduction- In the present era of globalization, it is progressively obvious that the intensity of any undertaking relies on upon its capacity to advance its item and administration with a target to separate itself from its rivals or competitors in the business. It is normal for makers to catch item advertise or make a specialty for their item by separating, a generally comparable item on the premise of eye appeal. Regardless of the possibility that these items are not impeccable substitutes, the decision of shoppers and thusly market interest; may, to an extensive degree, rely on upon the appearance. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Copyright Protection for Industrial Designs" essay for you Create order In this appreciation, Industrial Designs (ID) have turned into a critical component in a product value chain. This permits a high potential and motivating force for benefit for business through interest in ID particularly substantial makers. For such item sections, design is a fundamental part and hence is protected to avoid imitation with an intention of passing off. After the industrial revolution in the present time ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s become necessary to give a special and unique shape of any article or product by industrial process. Today, manufacturers are interested in design of the article they produce. For the same they invest their capital with expensive research and because this Legal protection becomes necessary for their creation of new design or their articles. The protection is available under Designs Act, 2000 and Designs Rule, 2001 as amended in 2008. History of design protection in India- The first design protection legislation enacted in India was the Patterns and Designs Protection Act, 1872 which is enacted by the Britishers during British India. According to this inventors of new patterns and design have exclusive privilege of making, selling and using the invention I India or give license to do so for short period. After some time The Invention and Designs Act, 1888 was enacted. United Kingdom enacted Patents and Designs Act in 1907 and it becomes the basis of Indian Patent Act, 1911. Later in 1970 the Patents Act repealed the provisions relating to patents in the Indian Patents and Designs Act, 1911 and the act continue under the new title Design Act, 1911 with some amendments. The Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement (TRIPS) culminated at the end of seven years of negotiations from 1986 to 1993, as part of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations of the GATT. TRIPS came into force on 1st January 1995 with the establishment of World Trade Organization. TRIPS agreement provides mi nimum standards and norms in different property rights which include Industrial design. Protection of Industrial Designs in India- The important law legislating Designs in India is the Designs Act 2000 and the Designs Rules 2001. Designs Act, 2000 is the new law identifying with Industrial Designs, which annuls and replaces the prior Designs Act, 1911. This Act oversees its target well in the fast changes in engineering and global advancements. India has likewise arrived at a developed status in the field of modern designs and by watching globalization of the economy; the present legislation is strolling in venture with the changed specialized and business situation as far and wide as possible. Under the TRIPS Agreement, least principles of security of Industrial designs have been accommodated. Indian Designs law already provides these minimal standards to align with the international pattern. Any entities or things having unique and distinct pattern, appearance and design can register under Design Act. The registered owner gets the exclusive right to apply this design to any article in which design is registered. Separated from giving security of configuration component of industrial protection, the law promote innovative activity in the field of industries. From an intellectual property law perspective an industrial design is concerned only to the ornamental or aesthetic aspects of a product. As per Indian law protecting industrial design, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“designà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  constitutes only the features of shape, configuration, pattern, ornament or composition of lines or colours applied to any article whether in two dimensional or three dimensional or in both forms, by any industrial process or means, whether manual, mechanical or chemical, separate or combined, which in the finished article appeal to and are judged solely by the eye; but does not include any mode or principle of construction or anything which is in substance a mere mechanica l device, and does not include any trade mark as defined in clause (v) of sub-section (1) of section 2 of the Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958 or property mark as defined in section 479 of the Indian Penal Code or any artistic work as defined in clause (c) of section 2 of the Copyright Act, 1957. Some important points mentioned in the Designs Act, 2000 are- Design deals with external appearance only. It has to be judged by naked eye only. It relates to features of shape, configuration, pattern or ornamental decoration or composition of lines or colours applied to any article. Application of shape, configuration etc. to an article should be by an industrial process or means. In the finished article, it should appeal to and be judged solely by the eye. It does not include any trademark or property mark or any artistic work as defined in the Copyright Act, 1957. According to this act, an article intimates any object of manufacture and any substance, manufactured or mostly common; and incorporates any piece of an article equipped for being made and sold independently. With the end goal of enlistment under the Act the configuration must be new or unique, unpublished at one time or in presence in whatever other nation and the article must have its presence autonomous of the designs connected to it. Thus, the configuration as connected to an article ought to be indispensable with the article itself. Trademark and property imprint, stamps, marks, tokens, cards, and so forth are prohibited from the enlistment under the act as these cant be considered as an article. Additionally, any mode or rule of development or operation, which is in substance a minor mechanical gadget and it is obliged that the configuration ought to be obvious on the completed article. The total term of a registered design is 15 years. Steps Involved in Registration- An application for the enrollment of outline might be made in the endorsed structure and should be recorded in the patent office alongside the prescribed fee. Four copies of uniqueness of the design shall file with the application. The application define the class in which the design is to be registered and the articles for which the design is to be applied. Separate application is require for different article. Where words, letters or numerals are not the substance of the configuration, they might be expelled from the representations or examples and where they are the pith of the outline, the Controller may require the insertion of a disclaimer of any right to their selective utilization. The Controller might allude the application for examination to the analyst to know whether such plan is equipped for being enrolled under the Act and guidelines made there under. Controller may accept the application for registration if he fined all thing define in application is lawful. If examiner fined any loophole in application they can sent application for amendment. In the event that the candidate or his operator does not evacuate the complaints or request hearing inside 3 months, his application is considered to have been withdrawn, given that the period to evacuation of protest might not surpass 6 months from the date of recording. After giving the candidate a chance of being heard or overall if the candidate has not went to the listening to or has told that he doesnt craving to be listened, the Controller may enroll or decline to enlist the configuration as he supposes fit. The Controller might concede a Certificate of Registration to the proprietor of the configuration when enrolled. an application which owing to any disregard or default of the candidate, has not been finished in order to empower enrollment to be effected inside 6 months from the date of use, should be regarded to be surrendered. On acknowledgement of the outline documented in admiration of the application, the Controller should immediate the enrollment and distribution of the particulars of the application and the representation of the article to which the configuration has been connected, in the Official Gazette. Protection under the Design Act, 2000 and the Copyright Act, 1957 Ordinarily designs have been viewed as both under the space of masterful work and modern generation. This has prompted uncertainty and cover with other IPR laws like copyright law, trademark law, utility model and unfair competition law. This overlap has been carefully evaded in both Paris and Berne convention which recognized that designs are topic for copyright and also industrial production. Consequently, there will be works that are both protectable under copyright law and additionally under designs law. Indian law has attempted to resolution this by the provision of Section 15(2), Copyright Act of 1957 which manages the rights to which a holder of a unique aesthetic work is entitled. In Microfibers Inc. vs Girdhar Co. Anr[1], the Delhi High Court has clarified the interplay between the Designs Act, 2000 and the Copyright Act, 1957 in the light of section 2(d) which excludes artistic works under the Copyri ght Act from the definition of design. The first canvases/aesthetic works which may be utilized to mechanically deliver the outlined article would keep on falling inside the significance of the creative work characterized under Section 2(c) of the Copyright Act, 1957 and would be qualified for the full time of copyright insurance as apparent from the meaning of the outline under Section 2(d) of the Designs Act. Nonetheless, the plan of creating the imaginative work is not important. It is the select right of the holder of a Copyright in a unique aesthetic work to recreate the work in any material structure. On the off chance that the outline is enlisted under the Designs Act, the Design would lose its copyright insurance under the Copyright Act. On the off chance that it is an outline registrable under the Designs Act yet has not all that been enrolled, the Design would keep on appreciating copyright insurance under the Act so long as the limit furthest reaches of its application on an article by a modern procedure for more than 50 times is arrived at. At the same time once that utmost is crossed, it would lose its copyright security under the Copyright Act. This elucidation would blend the Copyright and the Designs Act as per the administrative expectation. Protection and Injunction under Civil Procedure Code Section 53(2)(a) and 53(2)(b) provides remedies, the plaintiff may seek interlocutory injunction pendent lite under CPC, Order 39 Rules 1 and 2. The principles applicable to the grant of interlocutory injunction in the case of a design are the same as are applicable in the case of a patent.[2] The plaintiff must make out an at first sight case and demonstrate that the parity of comfort is to support him. An interlocutory injunction wont regularly be conceded where damages will give a satisfactory remedy, ought to the plaintiffs claim succeed. The Delhi High Court in the case of Niki Tasha P. Ltd. v. Faridabad Gas Gadgets P. Ltd.[3] held that the court will not grant an interlocutory injunction unless satisfied that there is a real probability of the plaintiff succeeding on conclusion of the trial of the suit. Interlocutory injunction will not be granted if there are substantial grounds for attacking the validity of the registration. Interlocutory injunction will likewise be denied if the respondent gives an endeavor to keep a record on the off chance that he is an individual of substance and the endeavor will give the alleviation which the plaintiff requires. In Bansal Plastic Industries v. Neeraj Toys Industries[4] the court expressed that giving a provisional injunction is in the carefulness of the court which is to be practiced as per reason and sound standards. Conclusion- 1 | Page [1] 128 (2006) DLT 238, 2006 (32) PTC 157 Del [2] P. Narayanan, Intellectual Property Law (Calcutta : Eastern Law House Private Ltd.) 1990, p. 123 [3] AIR 1985 Del 136. [4] 14 IPLR 75 (Del., 1989)

Changes in Cigarette Advertistments Since the 20th Century...

INTRODUCTION Advertising is a form of communication between producers and consumers attained through marketing which persuades, encourages or manipulates the consumer to be drawn to a certain good or service in order to increase recognition and promote sales. In order to successfully promote a good or a service, sellers use advertising techniques that have had to be altered and improved over time as fashion, values and standards of living change. Advertising research and marketing research works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising and the most common advertising techniques focus on appealing to their targeted audience through appropriate persuasive language and visual elements. This paper will explore the evolution†¦show more content†¦It was the era in which high class and sophistication was seen as important . For that reason, the characters in the cigarette advertisements were presented as rich and respected. At first smoking was a hobby dominated by men. In the United States men represented 95% of the market , hence, cigarette companies launched advertisements that were appealing to them. This is apparent in Appendix 1, Chesterfield’s advertisement from the 1920’s, which was intended to appeal to viewers through their representation of gender. The advert is comprised of a man dressed up in a well-cut suit and a woman with a translucent dress, set before a background of a shining moon and dark sea, which makes it romantic and mysterious. They are positioned in a way that makes it seem like the man is protecting the woman. This appeals to the men that the advertisements were targeted at. As in Appendix 1, men and women were typically dressed up in smart suits and elegant dresses in cigarette advertisements during the beginning of the 1900’s, making them look rich and sophisticated. The characters in Appendix 1 are positioned in a comfortable way, making them seem relaxed which makes them appear more attractive and satis fied. Graphic design was also used in order to associate their products with particular qualities and hence make their product more appealing to

Debate concerning economic implications of intellectual property rights Free Essays

string(48) " helps to guarantee a just return on investing\." The argument refering the economic deductions of rational belongings rights ( IPRs ) has gained considerable attending over the past two decennaries in the context of the World Trade Organization ‘s ( WTO ) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ( TRIPS ) . TRIPS aims to contract the spreads in the manner that IPRs are protected around the universe, and to convey them under common international regulations. Developing states are under increasing force per unit area to beef up their national rational belongings ( IP ) regimes, in order to harmonize them with those of developed states. We will write a custom essay sample on Debate concerning economic implications of intellectual property rights or any similar topic only for you Order Now Developing states have been for long clip under demand by developed states for the execution of rational belongings rights. The chief concern by the developed states is to protect the inventions in the developing states from the illegal imitation and copying. The underdeveloped states are divided over the argument on the base of their economic conditions, foreign direct investing and technological edification. The concern for the development states is economic deductions for the execution of such rational belongings governments in their several states. Intellectual Property Rights are one of the sensitive countries for developing states whose proper execution with appropriate timing could raise the socio-economical conditions of the developing states. It is practically inevitable for the developing states to acquire benefit from the strong rational belongings rights owned by the discoverers in the developed states. From the planetary public assistance position, it was argued that holding the weaker rational belongings in the underdeveloped states does non needfully means that discoverers in the developed states would lose, nevertheless the comparative fiscal benefits associated with such innovations could be less. Chapter 1 Introduction Overview Intellectual Property Rights ( IPR ) are sole rights over creative activities of the head, both artistic and commercial and the corresponding Fieldss of jurisprudence. These include innovations, literary and artistic plants, symbols, names, images, and designs used in commercialism. The success of a merchandise today relies much on creativeness and invention. Awareness of IPRs is important to guarantee originative thoughts and inventions are good protected from commercial development. There remains considerable contention on the economic impact of TRIPS ( interpreted as the tightening of IPRs ) in developing states. This study focuses on the long-run structural issues refering the impact of TRIPS on industrial and engineering development in hapless states. Systems to regulate rational belongings and advance societal public assistance through invention and cognition creative activity are non new. Despite their being through the past decennaries and centuries, rational belongings was comparatively absent from the public argument. The relationship between IPRs and development is so rather complex from a theoretical point of position. On one manus, there are theoretical statements proposing that stronger IPRs can hold positive effects on development. On the other manus, there are theoretical statements against stronger IPRs in developing states. As such, this study reviews the empirical grounds about the relationship between the strength of IPRs and each of the following countries in developing states that is foreign direct investing ( FDI ) , trade, invention and traditional cognition and familial resources. It is found that the relationship is viewed better from an surrogate position, where the broader degrees of economic and societal development have a strong consequence on how IPRs affect developing states. In this manner, the study helps to shift the initial inquiry on the functions of IPRs in developing states and to clear up its related grounds base. Chapter 2 Intellectual Property Rights 2.1 Overview Intellectual Property Rights ( IPRs ) are the cardinal drive forces behind economic growing. Inventions, particular procedures, computing machine plans, typical names or Markss, musical and other media work, designs and trade secrets may all be Intellectual Property right protected. Such IPRs must be decently identified, carefully evaluated and skilfully protected if they are to carry through their commercial potency. There are two classs of IPR viz. Industrial Property and Copyrights. 2.2 Industrial Property Industrial Property includes innovations, hallmarks, industrial design, and geographical indicant of beginning. Industrial belongings are rights due to industry thoughts for others non to copy or steal thoughts. The three types of Industrial Property are patent, hallmarks, industrial design right and trade secrets. 2.2.1 Patents The sole right of the discoverer to forestall others from doing, utilizing and selling a patented innovation for a fixed period of clip in return for the discoverer ‘s unwraping the inside informations of the innovation to the populace. Peoples could non copy the innovation under this regulation and is usage at industrial or commercial intents. 2.2.2 Trade secrets Trade secret refers to any information that may be used in the operation of a concern and that is sufficiently valuable to afford an existent or possible economic advantage. Some companies make their cardinal employees to subscribe set abouting non to unwrap information about the research that they are working on to other people. Some companies require employees to subscribe set abouting non to fall in a rival within a specified period, such as six months, in instance they resign from the company. These steps are taken so as to protect the companies ‘ trade secrets. 2.2.3 Hallmarks Hallmarks are commercial beginning indexs, typical marks capable of separating the goods or services that are produced or provided by a specific individual or endeavor. Such marks, including personal names, letters, numbers, nonliteral elements and combinations of colors every bit good as any combination of such marks, shall be eligible for enrollment as hallmarks. Hallmarks are for merchandises in selling. It is a mark for forestalling confusion of selling merchandises. 2.2.4 Industrial Design Right Industrial design right protects the signifier of visual aspect, manner or design of an object. Copyright includes novels, verse forms, dramas, movies, music, art work. When an industrial design is protected, the proprietor that is the individual or entity that has registered the design is assured an sole right against unauthorised copying or imitation of the design by 3rd parties. This helps to guarantee a just return on investing. You read "Debate concerning economic implications of intellectual property rights" in category "Essay examples" Protecting industrial designs helps economic development, by promoting creativeness in the industrial and fabrication sectors, every bit good as in traditional humanistic disciplines and trades. They contribute to the enlargement of commercial activities and the export of national merchandises. 2.3 Copyright Copyright protects merely the signifiers of looks of the thought non the thoughts themselves. For illustration agreements of words, musical notes, colourss and forms of work are protected. The continuance of copyright exists during the being of right of first publication proprietor. It begins from the minute when the work is created and continues some clip after the proprietor ‘s decease. The ownership of copyright belongs to the individual who created the work. 2.3.1 Copyright and IPR Copyright and IPR are considered to be an of import portion of modern life. Technological alteration means that IPR are going more and more important. Copyright notices should look on all plants for which protection is sought. Intellectual belongings should be decently dealt with, within all contracts and where appropriate confidentiality understandings should be used, for illustration to protect person ‘s â€Å" cognition † or innovations during dialogues from being exploited for fiscal or other addition. Copyright is an highly relevant right for the information engineering sector. It could about hold been designed with computing machines and the Internet in head. Copyright is the right of the conceiver of a literary, dramatic, artistic or musical work to command the reproduction and publication or public presentation of the work. Equally far as the Internet is concerned, copyright protects most stuffs on the Internet. It protects computing machine package and its beginning codification, screen shows and other literary, musical and artistic plants on the Internet. 2.4 Brief overview on WIPO The World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) is a specialised bureau of the United Nations. Established in 1970, the World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) is an international organisation dedicated to assisting to guarantee that the rights of Godheads and proprietors of rational belongings are protected worldwide and that discoverers and writers are therefore recognized and rewarded for their inventiveness. This international protection acts as a goad to human creativeness, forcing frontward the boundaries of scientific discipline and engineering and enriching the universe of literature and the humanistic disciplines. How does WIPO advance the protection of rational belongings? As portion of the United Nations, WIPO exists as a forum for its Member States to make and harmonise regulations and patterns to protect rational belongings rights. Most industrialised states have protection systems that are centuries old. Many new and underdeveloped states, nevertheless, are now constructing up their patent, hallmark, and copyright Torahs and systems. With the rapid globalisation of trade during the last decennary, WIPO plays a cardinal function in assisting these new systems evolve through pact dialogue, legal and proficient aid, and preparation in assorted signifiers, including in the country of enforcement of rational belongings rights. WIPO besides provides planetary enrollment systems – for patents, hallmarks, and industrial designs which are under regular reappraisal by Member States and other stakeholders to find how they can break function the demands of users and possible users. WIPO works with its Member States to demystify rational belongings from the grass-roots degree through the concern sector to policy shapers to guarantee that its benefits are good known, decently understood, and accessible to all. Chapter 3 Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ( TRIPS ) 3.1 Introduction TRIPS is an international understanding administered by the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) that sets down minimal criterions for many signifiers of rational belongings ( IP ) ordinance as applied to subjects of other WTO Members. It was negotiated at the terminal of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) in 1994. The TRIPS understanding introduced rational belongings jurisprudence into the international trading system for the first clip and remains the most comprehensive international understanding on rational belongings to day of the month. In 2001, developing states, concerned that developed states were take a firm standing on an overly narrow reading of TRIPS, initiated a unit of ammunition of negotiations that resulted in the Doha Declaration. The Doha declaration is a WTO statement that clarifies the range of TRIPS. After the Uruguay unit of ammunition, the GATT became the footing for the constitution of the World Trade Organization. Because confirmation of TRIPS is a mandatory demand of World Trade Organization rank, any state seeking to obtain easy entree to the legion international markets opened by the World Trade Organization must ordain the rigorous rational belongings Torahs mandated by TRIPS. For this ground, TRIPS is the most of import many-sided instrument for the globalisation of rational belongings Torahs. Many surveies have analyzed the impact of TRIPS on both the developed and developing states based on two attacks, foremost from the historical/empirical position, including the application of statistical/econometric techniques, and 2nd from a theoretical position, chiefly game theory. The pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS pecuniary flows across states From the historical/empirical position, research workers have already investigated at length the impact of TRIPS on assorted economic systems. These surveies normally focus on pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS informations on foreign direct investing forms, royalty and licensing payment flows, and so on. For illustration, La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) reappraisal IMF informations crossing from 1992 to 2003 in selected European Union and APEC states ( as shown in Figure 1 ) . Figure 1: Pre-TRIPS and post-TRIPS pecuniary flows Beginning: Adapted from IMF Balance of Payments Statistics ( 2004 ) ; La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) Their analysis shows that for the USA, France, the UK, and Japan, there are post-TRIP additions in the influx of net royalties and licence transportations, while many other states have experienced increased escapes. Lai ( 2008 ) reaches similar decisions by demoing the biggest victors ( USA, Germany, France ) and biggest also-rans ( Canada, Brazil ) from TRIPS enforcement and patent harmonisation across take parting states under the TRIPS understanding. Therefore, in footings of net royalties and licence transportations, merely a few developed states benefit from TRIPS while most of the developing states suffer from TRIPS. Knowledge/technology transportations and IPRs Another of import issue is whether a stronger domestic IPR protection can pull more foreign technology/knowledge transportations into the underdeveloped states. Maskus ( 2000 ) concludes that foreign direct investings ( FDIs ) and engineering transportation may increase when patent rights are strengthened. But the positive impact of stronger IPR protection depends on the competitory nature of the economic system. Similarly, La Croix and Konan ( 2006 ) point out that †the effectivity of stronger IPRs in exciting growing depends on the capableness of the domestic economic system to implement the IPRs and to absorb foreign direct investing and foreign engineering expeditiously. † Hence, a stronger IPR government may increase the cognition influx, but a stronger IPR criterion is non a satisfactory status. Knowledge transportations from foreign states depend on sufficient conditions, such as an equal substructure of the domestic economic system, high labour productivity/wage rate ratio, unfastened trade policy, advanced capacity, market size, GDP per capita, political stableness, and so on. If most or all of the necessary conditions are satisfied, a stronger IPR protection is likely to pull more FDI or engineering licensing which transportations knowledge and/or gives the domestic state a better opportunity to tap into the planetary stock of cognition. However, if few or none of the conditions are satisfied, a stronger IPR government entirely will non do any important difference in increasing the cognition flow into the state. The being of the other ( sufficient ) conditions is one of the grounds why the four †East Asiatic Tigers † and China received a batch of FDIs while their IPR governments were weak, and why some other states can non pull more foreign investing even aft er they strengthen their IPR criterions. 3.2 Execution in developing states When developing states join the planetary administration, they are bound with rational belongings right understanding. They are coerced into an understanding, which transfer million of dollars worth of monopoly net incomes from hapless states to wealth states under the belongings right jurisprudence. The understanding related to rational belongingss such as trade-related rational belongings rights ( TRIPS ) , TRIMs utilizing planetary administration GATT, have been set up. However, all these understandings is far from favorable for developing words as it merely represented the most strongest and competitory MNC ‘s and industrialized states. In TRIPS, for case, belongings right understanding in computing machine package, pharmaceuticals merely to protect industrialized states based houses, which have comparative advantage in these merchandises ( Stubbs and Geoffrey 2000, p.174-5 ) . The costs of implementing the TRIPS Agreement to developing states are really high. Mexico spent over US $ 30 million upgrading rational belongings Torahs and enforcement ( Finger and Schuler 1999 ) . In bilateral trade dialogues, US force per unit area led states like Nigeria, Uganda, Morocco and Cambodia to implement patent protection governments for pharmaceuticals which are more restrictive than those required under TRIPS and are therefore known as TRIPS Plus. Intellectual belongings right under TRIPS is besides applied really loosely to let patent rights over single works cistrons, seed and their features and WTO members must protect works assortments either through patents ( WIPO ) . Up to now agricultural biotechnology MNC ‘s have filed 1000s of patents on works assortments, seeds. This would connote the remotion of husbandmans ‘ rights in developing states over workss, seeds and progressively easy for MNC ‘s which ain patent to implement their rational belongings rights in developing states. For illustration husbandmans in Nalgonda territory of Andhra Pradesh in India paid up to 1,600 rupees for a 450-gram package of Bt cotton seeds own by MNC ‘s, ( of which the royalty constituent was 1,200 rupees ) , as against 450-500 rupees for normal assortments. Despite the costs, Bt cotton outputs have sometimes been lower than those of local assortments ( The Hindu, India ‘s National intelligence paper, 2003 ) . Dutch east indies In Indonesia, there are besides rather a few grounds have shown how the planetary regulation implemented in TRIPS and TRIMS is working chiefly to protect the involvement of industrialized states and MNC ‘s instead so developing states. Owing to international force per unit area, Indonesian authorities has to hold to legion international conventions on rational belongings right. These include the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, the WIPO Copyright Treaty, the Patent Cooperation Treaty, the Trademark Law Treaty, the Nice Agreement for the International Classification of Unclassified Goods and Services, and the Strasbourg Agreement Concerning International Patent Classification. Since so Indonesia need to sporadically escalate actions against copyright buccaneering or will be criticized from planetary community. The new right of first publication jurisprudence in Indonesia came into force in July 2003. The jurisprudence contains a figure of of import commissariats long sought by MNC ‘s operating in this state including proviso for the issue of an implementing ordinance on optical discs ( OD ) , condemnable punishments for end-user buccaneering and the ability of right holders to seek civil injunctions against plagiarists. The right of first publication jurisprudence establishes rights to licence, bring forth, rent or broadcast audiovisual, cinematographic, and computing machine package. Young graduates come ining a profession have get downing wages of around $ 80- $ 100 per month ( Richter and Pamela, 2004 ) . It is, hence, unrealistic to anticipate the state like this to be able to use strong moralss such as TRIPS where the support of the general population is still hapless. If copyright jurisprudence is really purely applied and the pupils are required to purchase a book that will be more so their life disbursal for a month, ( like some foreign text editions are ) at that place will non many of them could attempt to hold it. This state of affairs will besides do the future coevals of developing states be denied from the newest engineering and cognition. Under the inducements created by the planetary system of patenting, right of first publication and rational belongings right protection, the planetary participant in pharmaceutical industries will be more interesting in bring forthing medical specialty for the rich instead so the hapless. 3.3 Benefits from allowing monopoly rights There are four sorts of benefits from allowing monopoly rights to pioneers. Each is capable to makings every bit far as developing states are concerned. The stimulation of private invention The importance of this benefit rises with the gait of proficient alteration as at present and with the ‘imitability ‘ of new engineering, peculiarly in such activities as package. It besides grows with globalization, which leads pioneers ( in peculiar big multinational companies ) to pitch their R A ; D to universe instead than national markets. However, where the state in inquiry has little or no local advanced capablenesss, the strengthening of IPRs does non excite domestic invention. The extent to which it stimulates planetary R A ; D depends on its portion of the market for peculiar advanced activities and its ability to pay for expensive new merchandises. Where the economic system undertakes technological activity of an absorbent and adaptative sort, the great majority of informal and R A ; D attempt in freshly industrializing states, stronger IPRs may hold no consequence in exciting it. On the contrary, to the extent that such attempt involves copying and change by reversal technology inventions elsewhere, it can compress a critical beginning of acquisition, capableness edifice and fight. The usage of the new cognition in productive activity Without such usage, of class, there can be no fiscal wages to pioneers in footings of higher monetary values and net incomes, it leads to higher incomes, employment, fight and so on for the economic system as a whole. If the cognition is non exploited within the economic system, and its merchandises are provided at higher monetary values than in with weak IPRs, the additions are correspondingly less and the costs correspondingly higher. There may still be additions, if invention is stimulated by the being of that state ‘s market and the new merchandises represent a existent addition in consumer public assistance. This addition has to be set against non merely the higher monetary values induced by IPRs but besides against decreases in local economic activity as a consequence of the monopoly and longer term growing potency. The airing of new cognition to other agents Stricter IPRs may ease the transportation of engineering across national boundary lines every bit good as addition local diffusion by supplying an enforceable legal model. This is likely to be of particular significance for technology-intensive merchandises and activities, where pioneers are antipathetic to selling engineering to states with weak IPRs, where escape is a existent possibility ( Cantwell and Andersen, 1996 ) . The economic benefit in a underdeveloped state depends on the presence of local agents capable of buying, absorbing and deploying new engineerings, peculiarly complex high engineerings. If no such agents exist, rigorous IPRs offer no benefit for engineering transportation. If they exist, the size of the benefits depends on two things: the extent to which rigorous IPRs raise the cost of purchasing engineerings, and whether the options of copying and contrary technology would hold been executable, cheaper and more rewarding in constructing up local technological cap ablenesss. The stimulation of invention by other endeavors This is a really of import benefit of the IPR system, but clearly its value is chiefly to economic systems where there is intense advanced activity by big Numberss of viing endeavors. Innovation around a peculiar patent is one of the most dynamic beginnings of technological advancement. However, this is of small or no value to hapless and unindustrialized states that lack a local advanced base. These makings are, of class, acknowledged in the IPR literature. Chapter 4 Intellectual Property and Foreign Direct Investment 4.1 Overview Normally, FDI is seen as cardinal determiners for economic development and poorness decrease in developing states. Inward FDI can turn out to be good to developing states, ensuing in the betterment in domestic advanced capacity, increased R A ; D employment, better preparation and support to instruction. Over the past two decennaries, there has been a turning scholarly literature on the relationship between IPRs and FDI influxs in developing states. From a theoretical point of view, the relationship between IPRs and FDI determinations is complex. The undermentioned subdivisions review the theoretical statements for and against stronger IPRs in developing states in their influence on FDI determinations. 4.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rights Stronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantages Investing by houses can be more likely when host states have strong IP protection, as this reduces the hazards of imitation and leads to a comparatively larger net demand for protected merchandises ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1998a ) . Hence, IPRs positively affect the volume of FDI by enabling foreign houses to vie efficaciously with local houses that possess ownership advantages ( Smarzynska Javorcik, 2004 ) . Stronger rational belongings rights can make location advantages Not merely can IPRs positively affect the volume of FDI, but they can besides act upon where multinationals decide to turn up that investing. IPRs are defensive in nature and hence differ across national boundaries. Therefore, stronger IPRs in some underdeveloped states can be a location advantage that will positively impact multinationals ‘ determinations. On the contrary, developing states characterised by weak IPRs can be less attractive locations for foreign houses. However, in the context of TRIPS, it is sensible to believe that the tendency toward harmonization of IPRs within TRIPS would countervail such location advantages. In this sense, states with weaker protection can go more attractive as they strengthen their IPRs, and the comparative attraction of those with strong IPRs already in being can fall ( Maskus, 2004 ) . Stronger rational belongings rights can increase quality of foreign direct investing IPRs affect the composing of FDI. Strong protection may promote FDI in high engineering sectors, where such rights play an of import function. In add-on, it may switch the focal point of FDI undertakings from distribution to fabrication ( Smarzynska Javorcik, 2004 ) . 4.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rights Strengthening rational belongings rights can increase market power Strong IPRs negatively influence FDI by supplying rights holders with increased market power. As a consequence, strong IPRs cause houses to deprive and cut down their service to foreign states. The market power consequence can cut down the snap of demand confronting the foreign house, bring oning them to put or bring forth less of its patentable merchandise in the host state. Stronger IPRs can let the pattern of higher monetary values by foreign houses because IPRs cut down competition among houses. Therefore, stronger monetary values can counterbalance for lower investing or production. Stronger rational belongings rights can discourage foreign direct investing by promoting Licensing Strong IPRs can besides do multinationals to exchange their preferable manner of bringing from foreign production and R A ; D to licensing ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1998a ) . Ferrantino ( 1993 ) argues that houses prefer FDI over licencing when protection is weak, as houses are more able to keep direct control over their assets through internalised foreign production or inhouse foreign R A ; D. In this instance, beef uping IPRs diminishes the inducement for FDI at the border for R A ; D-intensive industries ( Primo Braga and Fink, 1997 ) . 4.4 Evidence from the position of developing states Intellectual belongings rights seem to impact positively on economic development through foreign direct investing Branstetter et Al. ( 2007 ) supply empirical penetrations about the effects of increased FDI on industrial development. By utilizing firm-level panel informations on US transnational houses, they examined how those houses responded to a series of rational belongings reforms undertaken in 16 states in Asia, Europe, Latin America and the Middle East ( Argentina, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Philippines, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey and Venezuela ) . Their findings showed that US multinationals expanded the graduated table of their activities in states after these states implemented IPR reforms. The addition in usage of inputs in the host states was disproportionately higher among multinationals that made extended usage of IPRs. In add-on to it, industrial activity expanded overall after rights reform. This enlargement of transnational activity more than countervail any diminution in the imitative activity of local houses. Intellectual belongings rights positively affect outward foreign direct investing Refering outward FDI from developing states, Park and Lippoldt ( 2003 ) through empirical observation showed that that an addition in the strength of patent rights tended to significantly and positively impact the outward FDI of developing and least developed states. This implies these states could derive from the harmonization of IPRs ( Park and Lippoldt, 2003 ) . Chapter 5 Intellectual Property and Trade 5.1 Overview For most underdeveloped states, international trade allows them to get high value-added goods through importing that are necessary for economic development, but which are non produced domestically. In bend, exports allow developing states to transform underutilized natural resources and surplus labour into foreign exchange, in order to pay for imports to back up economic growing. The undermentioned paragraphs briefly present the chief theoretical statements back uping and disputing the position that stronger IPRs addition and heighten international trade. 5.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rights Stronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantages Stronger IPRs provide ownership advantages to houses functioning foreign markets by supplying legal resort against misdemeanor of their assets. Therefore, stronger IPRs expand the markets served by houses. Strong IPRs can besides increase bilateral exchange to foreign markets by cut downing the costs associated with preventing loss of cognition assets. Such costs consist of foregone grosss ensuing from reduced bilateral exchange and/or disbursals incurred to do cognition assets hard to copy ( Maskus and Penubarti, 1995 ) International harmonization of rational belongings rights governments can cut down the dealing costs associated with trade Exporting houses in developed states face extra costs when exporting to developing states, when they must prosecute in activities designed to suppress local imitation. International harmonization of IPR governments can decrease the dealing costs of operating in different regulative environments. In this respect, it can stand for a location advantage for the participating states. 5.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rights Strengthening rational belongings rights can increase market power The market power construct holds that strong rights cut down bilateral exchange by guaranting a impermanent monopoly over the protected cognition. This market power is attributed to the patent ( grant ) holder, whether domestic or foreign. Firms that secure strong patent protection in foreign markets can exert their market power by curtailing measure and increasing the unit monetary value of bilateral exchange to that market ( Maskus and Penubarti, 1995 ; Fink and Primo Braga, 2004 ) . Firms ‘ behavior depends on a assortment of conditions. For illustration, market power can be generated by comparatively modest strength of IPRs when markets are segmented, when few near replacements are available and proficient soaking up capacities are weak. Furthermore, strong IPRs can reenforce market cleavage and cut down the ability to replace merchandises. As a consequence, a negative relationship can emerge between the strength of IPRs and bilateral flows under market power conditions, pa rticularly when proficient absorbent capacities are weak ( Smith, 2001 ) . Firms are likely to cut down the measure supplied and increase the protected merchandises ‘ monetary values. Stronger rational belongings rights can discourage trade and promote licensing A farther beginning of uncertainness stems from the fact that differing degrees of IPRs can impact a house ‘s determination about its preferable manner of functioning a foreign market. In an environment characterised by strong rights, a house may take to function a foreign market by FDI, or by licencing its rational assets instead than through direct export. In this regard, beef uping rational belongings protection can hold negative effects on trade flows ( Fink and Primo Braga, 2004 ) . 5.4 Evidence from the position of developing states The empirical literature is about whether increased imports from developed states affect economic development and whether harmonization of IPRs has affected their export behavior. However, even within these countries, the empirical grounds from the position of developing states is instead limited, particularly sing the affect of imports from developed states on economic development. International harmonization of rational belongings rights may promote exports from emerging industrialized states Liu and Lin ( 2005 ) carried out a back-to-back pooled informations analysis from 1989 to 2000 in order to look into the relationship between IPRs and the exports of three hi-tech industries in Taiwan: semiconducting material, information and communicating equipment. Their empirical consequences showed that betterment in IPRs had a positive impact on Taiwan ‘s exports if the importing state had a stronger R A ; D ability than Taiwan. Furthermore, Liu and Lin found that when an importing state exhibited a strong menace of imitation, the betterment in IPRs in that state increased Taiwan ‘s exports through the market enlargement consequence. These consequences were corroborated farther by Yang and Huang ( 2009 ) . Harmonization has non increased exports from other developing states Smith et Al. ( 2009 ) explored whether TRIPS generated additions for developing states in the signifier of increased pharmaceutical exports. They found that TRIPS had non generated significant additions for developing states, but alternatively increased pharmaceutical trade in developed states. Chapter 6 Intellectual Property and Innovation 6.1 Overview Over the past two decennaries, there has been a turning academic literature look intoing the relationship between IPRs and invention. This relationship can be examined through the impact of IPRs on domestic invention ( i.e. engineering creative activity ) and IPRs ‘ impact on engineering transportation ( i.e. engineering soaking up and diffusion ) . The undermentioned subdivisions review the theoretical statements for and against stronger IPRs in developing states, to act upon engineering transportation from developed states and domestic invention. 6.2 The instance for stronger rational belongings rights Intellectual belongings rights can supply inducements for houses to put in R A ; D Firms do non hold the right inducements to put in R A ; D and invention if the benefits of such investing accrue to their rivals. This is the traditional statement about private under-investment in R A ; D due to market failure ( Foray, 2009 ) . The production of new merchandises and procedures generates new cognition. New cognition carries considerable economic value, but it has characteristics that make it debatable for the market system to manage decently. Knowledge is seen as a public good, and public goods have two basic properties. First, they are non-rival in ingestion and 2nd, they are ‘non-excludable ‘ . Without IPRs, a free market economic system can neglect to bring on an optimum investing in R A ; D and invention, since investors would non be able to reimburse the full benefit from their investing. Stronger IPRs can give greater inducements to houses to put in R A ; D. Stronger rational belongings rights can make ownership advantages Stronger IPRs give strong ownership advantages to houses in developed states, which can promote them to reassign their engineering to developing states through market channels: trade, FDI and licensing. Stronger rational belongings rights can cut down asymmetric information in engineering transportation IPRs can significantly cut down asymmetric information jobs in undertaking for international engineering transportation ( Arora, 1995 ) .The proprietor of a engineering may hold complete cognition about its specifications, its effectivity when deployed under different fortunes, associated know-how and the similar, while the purchaser has far less information about it. Therefore, the purchaser would be unwilling to offer a monetary value that would cover all of these claimed benefits before they are certain that such information is right. However, the marketer could be unwilling to uncover the information without a contract in topographic point at an acceptable monetary value: to make so could change the negotiating footings in his disfavor at best, and instantly make a rival based on the revealed cognition at worst. Stronger IPRs can let the decrease of asymmetric information in undertaking for engineering transportation. 6.3 The instance against stronger rational belongings rights Stronger rational belongings rights can increase market power Stronger IPRs are likely to raise the costs of engineering transportation, since they increase discoverers ‘ market power. Inventors can be expected to sell engineerings at a monetary value higher than fringy cost, which is socially less than optimal for the recipient state, at least in a inactive sense. Strengthening rational belongings rights can be deficient to cut down the asymmetric information job The statement developed by Arora ( 1995 ) is based on the transactional troubles created by the fact that statute information and tacit cognition are complementary and must be transferred together. However, this statement overlooks a job sing the receiver state ‘s legal and proficient capacities, it needs highly-skilled people who are able to cover with complex contract dialogues ( Foray, 2009 ) . Intellectual belongings rights systems can promote diffusion of free proficient information It is utile to remember that patent systems do non needfully impede the diffusion of proficient information. Rather, patent systems can even excite the diffusion of proficient information, since the discoverer must publically unwrap the proficient inside informations of the new technological cognition in exchange for patent rights. Technical description is an indispensable act. It is intended to supply sufficient ‘instructions ‘ for a specializer in that peculiar field, so as to be able to reproduce the innovation and better it. Strong IPRs may compel investors to unwrap their innovations to the full. In this sense, the patent system can bring forth a immense depository of proficient information in any technological country which can be freely used by anyone looking for information about a given engineering ( Foray, 2009 ) . Weak rational belongings rights can promote international engineering transportation through non-market channels International engineering transportation frequently occurs through non-market channels: nonvoluntary airing via copying and contrary technology. During the period of weak IPRs in developing states, copying was surely a major channel for international engineering transportation, in peculiar in the newly-industrialised states. Historical instances show that several developed states have used weak IPRs to hike the development of their industries ( Foray, 2009 ) . One can reason that it is plausible that IPRs may hinder such engineering transportation while beef uping ‘market-based ‘ channels, i.e. engineering transportation through trade, foreign direct investing and licensing 6.4 The empirical grounds The empirical literature on the impact of IPRs and invention in a North-South context has increased significantly throughout the 1990s and 2000s. The empirical grounds can be divided into two chief organic structures of work, foremost analyzing the effects of IPRs on international engineering and secondly look intoing how IPRs can impact on domestic invention in developing states. 6.4.1 Evidence on international engineering transportation Intellectual belongings rights tend to impact positively on licensing The majority of the empirical literature on the impact of IPRs on international engineering transportation has focused on the market-based signifiers of engineering transportation: trade, FDI and licensing. Yang and Maskus ( 2001 ) regressed the existent volume of license fees for industrial procedures paid by unaffiliated foreign houses to US houses in 23 developed and developing states in the 1980s and 1990s on the Ginarte-Park index ( Australia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, UK and Venezuela ) . They discovered that stronger patent rights pull larger arm’s-length volumes of accredited engineering, and that a 1 per cent rise in the index would increase licencing volumes by 2.3 per cent on norm. Smith ( 2001 ) relates US export, gross revenues of foreign affiliates and licensing fees to the Ginarte- Park patent index in several developed and developing states. In peculiar, Smith finds important grounds that stronger IPRs addition licensing payments on norm, at least for states with strong imitative abilities. Using the firm-data from Nipponese multinationals, Ito and Wakasugi ( 2007 ) found that stronger enforcement of IPRs accelerates the intra-firm engineering transportation measured by royalty payments from the affiliate to its parent houses. Intellectual belongings rights affect the channels of engineering transportation When analyzing the effects of IPRs on engineering transportation, it is of import to see the manners of bringing of engineering transportation through the different market channels: trade, FDI and licensing. The determinations among the different channels of engineering transportation depend on the strength of IPRs and ownership advantage ( Smith, 2001 ) . These determinations concern whether or non to reassign production, and therefore cognition, outside the beginning state and/or the beginning house. Firms prosecuting in exports hold their cognition inside both the beginning state and house. Firms that set up affiliates abroad transfer cognition outside the beginning state, but hold knowledge assets inside the beginning house. Firms that license their cognition assets to unaffiliated foreign houses transfer cognition outside both the beginning state and house. Smith ( 2001 ) finds that strong IPRs have a larger consequence on US cognition transferred outside the state and house, comparative to knowledge located inside the state and internalised in the house. In order words, strong IPRs spring inducements to houses in developed states to licence their engineerings to other houses in developing states, since the former will be able to command better the cognition transferred. 6.4.2 Evidence on domestic invention Although there are many empirical surveies on the relationship between IPRs and domestic invention ( i.e. engineering creative activity ) in developed states, the empirical literature on developing states is much more limited. Stronger rational belongings rights seem to promote invention in emerging industrialized economic systems Using panel informations for 64 developing states over the period 1975-2000, Chen and Puttitanun ( 2005 ) showed the positive impact of IPRs on inventions in developing states. Dutta and Sharma ( 2008 ) examined whether IPRs in India have increased invention by houses. Using panel informations on Indian houses from 1989 to 2005, they found strong grounds that Indian houses in more innovation-intensive industries increased their R A ; D outgo after TRIPS. The estimated within-firm addition in one-year R A ; D disbursement after TRIPS was on mean 20 per centum points higher in an industry with a one standard-deviation higher value of invention strength. Chapter 7 Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Traditional Knowledge 7.1 Overview Familial resources from workss, animate beings and microorganisms are common in developing states, amounting to 90 per cent of the universe ‘s familial resources. Communities and persons in developing states have exploited these familial resources through the coevalss. Their usage is embodied in what frequently is referred to as traditional cognition. Clear events affecting IP jurisprudence and traditional cognition, every bit good as theoretical arguments, have informed the inquiries asked in empirical surveies ( Oguamanam, 2008 ) . 7.2 Evidence from the position of developing states Uniform IP Torahs can non guarantee diverseness of entree and benefit-sharing For developed states, the effectivity of steps to protect diverseness of cognition depends on favourable market conditions and on communities ‘ capablenesss to allow a degree of market power. This decision that protection of diverseness in invention and production depends on local capablenesss nowadayss specific concerns for developing states. Some surveies find that there are strong monetary value premiums for high-quality biological merchandises arising from developing states, such as java ( Grote, 2007 ; Tregear et al. , 2007 ) . Developing states host the bulk of familial resources but frequently lack the technological capacity and capital to develop these resources sustainably. Trommetter ( 2005 ) suggests, through mention to historical instance surveies in pharmaceuticals and agribusiness, that developing states ‘ capacity to negociate, their bargaining power and perceptual experiences of their committedness to implement understandings impact the just benefit-sharin g of familial resources among those in developed and developing states. Tailored IP Torahs may back up diverseness of entree and benefit-sharing Cases where a clear deficiency of capableness in developing states to act upon invention processes correspond with a turning literature look intoing steps to supply for diverseness of engagement in cognition protection governments in developing states. This subdivision reviews the empirical literature in each of these countries in bend, underscoring the grounds for the effectivity of these different steps possible through IP jurisprudence to protect the diverseness of cognition related to familial resources in developing states. Chapter 8 Recommendations There are theoretical statements demoing that beef uping IPRs can hold positive effects on FDI. Strong rights can make ownership advantages that allow houses to put abroad. They can besides stand for a location advantage, which can be used by developing states to pull new cross-border investing. Furthermore, stronger IPRs can supply inducements for multinationals to increase the quality of their investing dedicated to developing states. Strong IPRs can increase the market power of multinationals in developing states, giving them inducements to increase the monetary value of their merchandises and to diminish their investing and gross revenues abroad. Furthermore, beef uping IPRs can cut down FDI to the benefit of licensing. Empirical grounds shows that stronger IPRs positively affect the volume of inward FDI in developing states, particularly those with strong proficient absorbent capablenesss. Additionally, they may act upon the composing of FDI by promoting investing in production and R A ; D instead than in gross revenues and distribution. international harmonization of IPR governments may promote exports from emerging industrialized states. However, this harmonization does non look to hold increased exports from other developing states. Stronger IPRs in developing states may further international engineering transportation, at least to states with strong technological absorptive capablenesss. Stronger IPRs are needed in developing states to promote domestic invention due to market failure and to ease international engineering transportation from developed states due to information dissymmetries in catching. Chapter 9 Decision The argument for rational belongings rights execution in developing states provides the base for the limit among developed, developing and hapless or least developed states ( LDC ) . On one side, developing states views the TRIPS understandings, in association to rational belongings rights as an bullying for their present economic systems, which might finally increase the entree to technological merchandises by increasing their cost. Soon, there is a demand to set up a model on the base of TRIPS understanding which could let the unvarying execution of strong or comparatively better IPR governments in the underdeveloped economic systems. This study has examined the impact of beef uping IPRs in developing states in four chief countries – FDI, trade, invention and familial resources and traditional cognition through a reappraisal of the most recent scholarly and gray literature. The empirical findings from the study show that stronger IPRs seem to act upon the determinations of single houses in developed states by promoting them to export, put and reassign their engineerings through licensing in developing states, in peculiar those with strong proficient absorbent activities. By increasing market power, strong IPRs can increase the costs of international engineering transportation. Furthermore, well-structured IPRs can promote the airing of free proficient information in the economic system. Some theoretical statements suggest that stronger IPRs are needed in developing states to promote domestic invention due to market failure and to ease international engineering transportation from developed states due to inf ormation dissymmetries in catching. As a conclusive note, beef uping IPRs can increase the market power of foreign houses in developing states, giving them inducements to increase the monetary value of their merchandises and diminish their exports to developing states. Furthermore, beef uping IPRs can cut down trade to the benefit of licensing. Furthermore, there is empirical grounds proposing that IPRs can positively impact trade, at least with states with high proficient absorbent capablenesss. However, stronger IPRs have differential effects across industries. How to cite Debate concerning economic implications of intellectual property rights, Essay examples

Geothermal Energy Essay Conclusion Example For Students

Geothermal Energy Essay Conclusion Geothermal EnergyMatt Arnold9/17/96Physics 009Professor ArnsThe human population is currently using up its fossil fuel supplies atstaggering rates. Before long we will be forced to turn somewhere else forenergy. There are many possibilities such as hydroelectric energy, nuclearenergy, wind energy, solar energy and geothermal energy to name a few. Each oneof these choices has its pros and cons. Hydroelectric power tends to upset theecosystems in rivers and lakes. It affects the fish and wild life population. Nuclear energy is a very controversial subject. Although it produces highquantities of power with relative efficiency, it is very hard to dispose of thewaste. While wind and solar power have no waste products, they require enormousamounts of land to produce any large amounts of energy. I believe thatgeothermal energy may be an alternative source of energy in the future. Thereare many things that we must take into consideration before geothermal energycan be a possibility for a human resource. I will be discussing some of theseissues, questions, and problems. In the beginning when the solar system was young, the earth was stillforming, things were very different. A great mass of elements swirled around adense core in the middle. As time went on the accumulation elements withsimilar physical properties into hot bodies caused a slow formation of acrystalline barrier around the denser core. Hot bodies consisting of iron wereattracted to the core with greater force because they were more dense. Thesehot bodies sunk into and became part of the constantly growing core. Less denseelements were pushed towards the surface and began to form the crust. The earlycrust or crystalline barrier consisted of ultra basic, basic, calc-alkaline, andgranite. The early crust was very thin because the core was extremely hot. Itis estimated that the mantel e 200 to 300 degrees Celsius warmer than it istoday. As the core cooled through volcanism the crust became thicker and cooler. The earth is made up of four basic layers, the inner solid core, the outerliquid core, the mantel and the lithosphere and crust. The density of thelayers gets greater the closer to the center of the earth that one gets. Theinner core is approximately 16% of the planets volume. It is made up of ironand nickel compounds. Nobody knows for sure but the outer core is thought toconsist of sulfur, iron, phosphorus, carbon and nitrogen, and silicon. Themantel is said to be made of metasilicate and perovskite. The continental crustconsists of igneous and sedimentary rocks. The oceanic crust consists of thesame with a substantial layer of sediments above the rock. The crust covers the outer ridged layer of the earth called thelithosphere. The lithosphere is divided into seven main continental plates. These continental plates are constantly moving on a viscous base. The viscosityof this base is a function of the temperature. The study of shiftingcontinental plates is called Plate Tectonics. Plate Tectonics allows scientiststo locate regions of geothermal heat emission. Shifting continental platescause weak spots or gaps between plates where geothermal heat is more likely toseep through the crust. These gaps are called Subduction Zones. Heat emissionfrom subduction zones can take many forms, such as volcanoes, geysers and hotsprings. When lateral plate movement induced gaps occur between plates,collisions occur between other plates. This results in partial platedestruction. This causes mass amounts of heat to be produced due to frictionalforces and the rise of magma from the mantle through propagating lithospherefractures and thermal plumes sometimes resulting in volcanism. During platemovement, continental plates are constantly being consumed and produced changingplate boundaries. When collisions between plates occur, the crust is pushed upsometimes forming ranges of mountains. This is the way that most Midoceanicranges were formed. Continental plates sometimes move at rates of severalcentimeters per year.Currently the Atlantic ocean is growing and the Pacificocean is shrinking due to continental plate movement. In Rome people first used geothermal resources to heat public bathhouses that were used for bathing or balneology.The mineral water was thoughtto be therapeutic. The minerals in the water have been used since the beginningof time. Through out the years geothermal heated water or steam has been usedin many different systems from heating houses and baths to being a source ofboric acids and salts. Today geothermal fluids provide energy for electricityproduction and mechanical work. Boric acid is still extracted and sold. Otherbyproducts of geothermal heated liquid are carbon dioxide, potassium salts, andsilica. The first 250 kilowatt geothermal power plant began operation in 1913 inItaly. By 1923 the United States had drilled its first geothermal wells inCalifornia. In 1925 Japan built a 1 kilowatt experimental power plant. Thefirst power plants constructed in Italy were destroyed in WWII, then rebuiltbigger and more efficient. Mexico built a 3.5 megawatt unit in 1959. In theUnited Stat es an 11 megawatt system at the geysers in California was constructedin 1960. Japan then installed a 22 megawatt plant in 1966. Geothermal energyhas been used for things other than energy production, such as geothermal space-heating systems, horticulture, aquaculture, animal husbandry, soil heating andthe first industrial operation of paper mills in New Zealand. Large scalegeothermal space-heating systems were constructed in Iceland in 1930. The word geothermal, refers to the thermal energy of the planetaryinterior and it is usually associated with the concept of systems in which thereis a large reservoir of heat to comprise energy sources.Geothermal systemsare classified and defined depending on their geological, hydrogelogical andheat transfer characteristics. Most geothermal heat is trapped or stored inrocks. A liquid or gas is usually required to transfer the heat from the rocks. Heat is transferred in three different ways, convection, conduction, andradiation. Conduction is the transfer of energy from one substance to another,through a body that may be solid. Convection is the transfer of energy from onesubstance to another through a working moving medium, such as water. The mediumusually transfers the energy in an upward direction. Radiation is the transferof energy out of a substance through the excitement of gas molecules surroundinga substance. Radiation is dependent upon two things the object emitting theheat and the surroundings ability to absorb heat.Convective geothermalsystems are characterized by the natural circulation of a working fluid or water. The heated water tends to rise and the cool to sink continually circulatingwater throughout the ground. The majority of the heat transfer is done throughconvection and conduction, radiation hardly ever effects heat flow. Whengeothermal heated water collects into a reservoir one form of a geothermalresource is created. One can approximate the amount of thermal energy presentin a geothermal resource by comparing the average heat content of the surfacerocks with the enthalpy of saturated steam.Enthalpy is energy in the form ofheat released during a specific reaction or the energy contained in a systemwith certain volume under certain pressure. It is generally accepted that belowa depth of ten meters, the temperature of the ground increases one degreeCelsius for every thirty or forty meters.At a depth of ten meters annualtemperature changes no longer affect the temperature or the earth. The most common geothermal resources used for the production of humanconsumed energy are hydrothermal. Hydrothermal systems are characterized byhigh permeability by liquids. There are two basic types of hydrothermal systems,vapor and liquid dominated systems. In a liquid based system, pumps must beplaced very deep in the well where only the liquid phase is present. By keepingthe liquid under pressure it is possible to keep the liquid at a much highertemperature than the liquids normal boiling point. If the liquid is not keptunder pressure, it will flash. Flashing is the process of vaporization. Itrequires 540 calories per gram of heat to vaporize water. The super heatedpressurized water is pumped up a long shaft into the plant. When it reaches theplant, controlled amounts of the pressurized water is allowed to flash orvaporize. The rapidly expanding gas pushes or turns the turbine. A power plantmay have numerous flash cycles and turbines. The more flash cycles the higherthe efficienc y of the power plant. Once the heated liquid has been used to thepoint where it has cooled to an unusable temperature it is reinjected into theground in hopes that it will replenish the geothermal well. Vapor systems workin much of the same way. The super heated gas flows through surface reboilersthat remove all of the non-condensable gases from the mixture of gases. The gasis pumped into pressurization tanks where extreme pressure causes the gas tocondense.The super heated liquid is then allowed to flash. The rapidlyexpanding gas turns the turbine. Specific examples and sites of electricalenergy production will be discussed later. Conductive geothermal systems consistof heat being transferred through rocks and eventually being transmitted to thesurface. The amount of heat transferred in a conductive geothermal isconsiderably less than the heat transferred in a convective system. Conductivegeothermal systems lack the water to efficiently transfer the heat, so watermust be artificial ly injected around the hot rocks.The heated water is thenpumped from the underground reservoir to the surface. This system is not aseffective as others because the temperature that the heated water reaches is notvery great. Geopressured geothermal systems are similar to hydrothermalsystems. The only difference is the pressure of the high temperature reservoir. Prostitution Through the Functionalism EssayThe earth around the Geysers geothermal site consists of highly permeablefractured shales and basalts created during Jurassic age. The ground abovethe wells consists of graywake sandstone. This form of sand stone is very hardto penetrated. Scientists believe that the large geothermal reservoir wascreated when an earthquake caused fault and shear zones. Steam temperatures inthe geothermal wells range from 260 to 290 . Pressures deep in the wells rangefrom 450psig to 480psig (3.1MPa to 3.3) . Some wells are 3000 meters deep andproduce almost 175 tonnes of steam per hour. It is thought that the center of the magma or the heat source at TheGeysers geothermal site lies under Mt. Hannah. Geologists are led to believethat there is a large mass of magma cooling under the geysers and power plantsthat is the source of all the heat.This assumption is proven when seismicwaves caused by earth quakes are slowed when they pass through the mountain. Afairly large fractured steam reservoir rests above the cooling molten. In 1967, the Union Oil Company in partnership with Magma PowerCorporation and Thermal Power Company began producing electricity from theGeysers Geothermal region and selling it to the Pacific Gas and Electric Company. The turbines in the power plant were designed to operate under intake pressuresof 80psig to 100psig.At first the plant operated at maximum efficiency but asthe years went by the geothermal resource was slowly depleted. The depletedheat source did not produce the constant pressure that was required for maximumefficiency so the efficiency decreased. There are two methods of drilling wells,mud drilling and air drilling. Mud drilling tends to clog up the porous rockbut it is easier on the drilling machinery.Air drilling leaves the porousrock free for water and steam flow but it is very hard on machinery due toabrasion and heating.Air drilling is therefore very expensive. Geothermalwells do not always maintain constant pressure. New wells must be drilled tocontinually maintain constant pressure on the turbine. The system built at TheGeysers geothermal field deliversof super heated steam. The steam producedby the wells is not pure water but consists of 1% non-condensable gases alongwith du st particles.If not cleaned off, the dust can accumulate on the insideof the turbine blade shrouds and cause turbine failure. This problem wasvirtually eliminated when heavy duty blades and shrouds replaced the faulty ones. It was thought that by the time the steam made it to the turbine very little ofit was still superheated, so special non-corrosive metal was not required in theconstruction of the upper level piping and the turbine. Normal carbon pipingwas used in the original construction. This proved not to be the case, after awhile the pipes began to corrode. As steam condenses non-condensable gasesbecome more of a problem. They become more concentrated, more corrosive and canform sulfuric acid.This new problem was solved by replacing the carbon steelused in the original construction with austenitic stainless steel. Electricalconnections and wires were also effected by concentrations of sulfuric acid. They were replaced with aluminum and stainless steel. The steam generated from the wells and geysers has a constant enthalpyof 1200-1500 Btu per lb.The use of condensing steam turbines that exhaustedwaste water below atmospheric pressure increased the efficiency of the plant. There were no rivers or streams in the immediate area that were sufficientlycool enough to be used as a cooling mechanism, so cooling towers wereconstructed. Incorporating the cooling towers into the system allowed the wastewater to be discharged at a cooler temperature f 18 therefore increasing thepossible efficiency of the system. Carnot Efficiency of The Geysers Power PlantCarnot Efficiency ==18=290Carnot Efficiency =Carnot Efficiency = .4831or48%This is a relatively efficient cycle. It certainly can compete withother modern day types of electricity production. Unfortunately carnotefficiencies can never be reached. A large amount of energy is lost in thecondensers and turbines. I feel that while the efficiency of this geothermalpower plant might not be overwhelmingly better than other modern day methods ofelectricity, the lack of pollution makes up for the loss in efficiency. Eventhough The Geysers power plant is relatively efficient, it does not even comeclose to taking advantage of all the emitted heat. Only 2% of the emitted heatfrom the source is used to heat water for electricity production.Thisgeothermal resource will not last for ever though. Heat Content of the EntireGeysers Geothermal Site-The Geysers geothermal site covers approximately . -Heat is onlyrecovered from the top 2km of the earth at The Geysers site. -The average temperature in this top 2km of earth is 240 . -The average air temp at The Geysers site is 15 . -The specific heat ofthe permeable rock that makes up most of geothermal region is . Volume xSpecific Heat x Change in Temperature = Heat ContentVol = x = SpHt== 240 18 = 222Q =( x )( )( )(222 )Q= Joules of Heat Content in the entire Geysers geothermal regionLife of The Geysers Heat Source -Power output of The Geysers plant =2000MW Fraction of the total heat used in the production of steam = 2%-Power taken from the geothermal resource = 2,000MW/2% = 100,000 MW -Heat content of the entire Geysers geothermal region =Joules -Seconds in one year = -1 Watt = 1 Joule/sec 100000MW = J/yearJ/ J/year = 24.67years. According to my calculations The Geysers geothermalresource will be depleted in 24.67 years at the current rate of usage. Ofcourse this is not taking into account the rate at which the resource is renewedfrom heat coming from deeper in the earth. I am assuming that the rate ofdepletion is so much greater than the rate of renewal tha t it is not significantin the calculation. The power plant at The Geysers site is run on dry superheated gases. The power plant now has 11 generators and has a rating of over 2000 MWe.Theprocess of electrical power generation used at The Geysers power plant isrelatively simple when compared to other modern day power plants. The steamthat evolves from the wells flows through pipes that lead to the turbine. Thepressure exerted by the superheated steam turns the turbine which produceselectricity. The steam then flows into the direct-contact condensers below theturbine. Cooling water from the cooling towers is constantly circulated throughthe condensers. The condensed steam and cooling water is then pumped back intothe cooling towers. Because the evaporation rate from the towers is slower thanthe rate at which water is pumped into the towers, excess amounts of wateraccumulate in the cooling tower. This excess water is then pumped toreinjection wells where it flows down through the soil and porous rock and isreheated by the heat source. The cycle begins all over again. See the diagrambelow. The costs of running this particular geothermal electrical plant are verycompetitive with the cost of other types of modern day plants. The operationcosts for the plant at The Geysers is almost same the as the operation costs ofan average fossil fuel powered plant and much less than the operating costs of ahydroelectric or nuclear plant. One of the greatest advantages of this and mostgeothermal systems is the relative lack of pollution. While most coal plantsgive off significant amounts of sulfur, somewhere around 93 tons per day for theaverage coal plant, geothermal plants produce no gas pollution other than thegases that would be naturally emitted from the geysers anyway.Coal plants areby far the worst polluters but other types of plants are not far behind. Average Cost of Geothermal Produced Energy per Kilowatt in the U.S. Totalelectricity produced in the U.S. during 1985 = 652000MW Percent of Geothermalenergy contributed to total U.S. production 3%3% x 652000MW = 19560MW Methods of geothermal energy productionCapital Dollars per KilowattDry Steam Flash 83%$1000/kWBinary 17%$3600kWDry Steam Flash = 83% x 19560MW x 1000kW/MW x $1000/kW =Binary = 17% x 19560MW x 1000kW/MW x $3600/kW =Total = + total = per 19560MW/1956MW x 1MW/1000kW = $1431.5 per kWThe future of geothermal energy looks very promising. There have beenmany technological breakthroughs that have resulted in increased efficiencies ofmodern day geothermal electrical plants. I feel that with the currentenvironmental situation that the world now faces a viable method of clean upwill include the use of geothermal power plants and resources. In a world thatis suffocating from the chemicals, and particulates that are created in theproduction of electricity and other commercial indu stries, we have no choice butto change our ways. The earth can not support the current rates of pollution. If we do not change reduce pollution the effects that are beginning to be seenow will become irreversible. Using geothermal resources for other purposes suchas space heating can only help reduce pollution emission. With in the nextcentury the world will begin to feel the energy crunch. Supplies of othernatural resources such as coal, oil and other petroleum products will begin tobecome scarce. The world today is completely electricity dependent. Withoutelectricity, the world as we know it would cease to exist. In the next centurywe must learn to be less electricity dependent or find other sources of energy. If less env

Concept of Data Management

The effect of water content on the strength of rock The WritePass Journal

The effect of water content on the strength of rock The effect of water content on the strength of rock Introduction Statement of the ProblemObjectivesScope and LimitationAimsLiterature ReviewProperties of LimestoneProperties of Chalk StonePorosity and PermeabilityStrength and Failure in Intact RocksEffect of Water on Rock StrengthMethodologyWork ScheduleConclusion  ReferencesRelated Introduction In order to design all type of buildings, it is necessary to understand the ground condition i.e. soils and rocks which the building foundations are based on. The occurrence of buildings failure, therefore, can lead directly to the problem of underground conditions i.e. bedrock which support the whole building to standing. In addition, rock is one mainly of an aggregate in the cement production to build the building that means the strength of rock can affect directly to the building. The need to understand rocks type and their properties are significantly for the designers to design buildings and this enables designers to effectively design. Rocks are comprised of many aggregate of mineral particles which is occurring in natural and bonded together with granular structure and texture. Rock in the geology can separate by the classification of grain size, genetic structure, hardness and quartz. but there are still have their individual characteristic and properties. The geologist separate rock in 3 types: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks. Pore spaces or voids in rock are the most important that will effect of rock strength and rock properties, namely, the mechanical properties of rock derived from the physical characteristic of rock. Type and structure of rock are related to the amount of porosity and the method of formation of rock can relate to the degree of porosity. For instance, igneous rocks which magma is slowly cooling have no porosity or the least porosity of 3 types of rock, on the other hand, the rock with rapidly cooling then it will have more porosity than those slowly cooling lava but it not in the case of sedimentary rocks which the porosity depending on the sizing, grading and precipitation of materials. If the rock have many porosity or voids, the strength lead to reduction result of the loss of internal cohesion i.e. molecular and mechanical and that can lead water seep through inside, absorb and keep in the pore spaces these are the most effective for the strength of rock. Many research are trying to understand the water content affect on rock strength but the results seem to be different on each other which depending on the type of rock and its source that means if the specimen come from difference areas then the results to show the strength of rocks will be different too, even if, the same type of rock. In this research will comparing the strength between an unlikely of the two sedimentary rocks: limestone and chalk rock which both consist of the mineral calcite which is calcium carbonate or CaCO3 is most commonly marine organisms and used for Portland cements, mortars and concretes. Limestone is usually an organic sedimentary rock and made up mostly of calcium carbonate but some limestone have a high proportion of magnesium carbonate, whereas, chalk rock is a type of soft limestone, porous and made up almost 99.9% of pure calcium carbonate. The quantity of calcium carbonate should effect on the strength of rock that the result will show by using an unconfined compressive strength test in saturated conditions. In general, sedimentary rocks are weak in compressive strength which relates to amount of the pores space in rock, thereby, the sample of both specific rocks should be naturally lower in compressive strength and sensitively to the degree of moisture content. Namely, when the w ater content increases then the compressive strength is decreased. Statement of the Problem The research would like to know the effect of the water content on the two specific difference rock types: limestone and chalk rock. The following are the main questions that this study would like to answer by using the existing literature and the experimentation: 1. What are the differences of water content effect on the two specific types of rock? 2. How the water content can effect on the strength of the two different rock types? 3. Does the calcium carbonate which comprises of the both rocks have an effect of the water content on the strength of rock? 4. If the calcium carbonate can have an effect on the strength of rock, how it can effect on the strength of the two different rock types? The scope of the study will be centered on concepts and topics related to the questions above Objectives This research focuses on the effect of water content of the differences of the two rock types. The study will provide an analysis and a comparison of the strength of the two difference types of rock. Thus, the following are the objectives of the study: 1. Provide an in-depth and comprehensive understanding of the strength of the differences rock between the limestone and the chalk stone. 2. Compare the strength of the two specific rocks: limestone and chalk stone. 3. Integrating the knowledge which gained from the literature and relating to the result of the experimentation and thoughts of researcher will give in conclusion. These objectives will the guiding element of the study and the researcher hopes to stick to it. Scope and Limitation The research will be tackling the effect of the water content on the two differences rock types. Then, the comparisons of the strength will be made between the two specific rock types mentioned earlier which is comparing between dry states and saturation states. The data will be gathered from the existing literature and the experimentation and therefore, the comparisons that will be made will be based on it also. In this research project is concentrated on the strength of intact rock in saturated condition to understand the relationship between the water content and the rock strength. The study is limited to the two specific types of rock that were mentioned and the form of data will depend on the existing literature and the experimentation. Aims The purpose of this research project is to determine the effect of water content on the strength of intact rock which is usually in compressive strength for intact of limestone and chalk rock which both intact rocks are formed of calcite minerals and consist of many pores insides that should lead directly effect on the strength on rocks. To understanding the strength, properties and characteristic of the two specific intact rocks. To the end of this research project will understand how the strength will be performance after the both intact rocks contain water within pore spaces in saturated conditions compare to the dry conditions. Literature Review Properties of Limestone Limestone is one of the sedimentary rock groups and called as calcite mineral or CaCO3 in geology. It is a carbonate rock that made by the deposition of carbonate sediments in the sea with inorganic chemicals processes that do not involve all of life such as the aggregation of certain types of carbonate mud and the fossils which deposit in the sea e.g. carapace of sea creatures, coral animals, algae, shellfish and aquatic plant. They are deposited within the pressure and then to be crystallizing of calcite mineral which can be reaction with an acid substance. Limestone has a white, grey, soft-pink or black colour with a solid texture details and its perhaps having a fossils in the rock e.g. shellfish or coral animals. The sources of limestone are usually as the mountain with a raised sharp cliffs and solubility. Limestone are the rock which having around a 50% of the calcite mineral. The limestone elements consist of calcium carbonate which most of the calcite and can be easily test by drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, using more kinds then the effervescent bubbles of carbon dioxide out. The areas where the accumulations of plaque are a great shallow sea water in tropical. The limestone used for industry of roads, railways, mortar, cement, calcium refractory, to make fertilizer and paint et cetera. The limestones are normally porous rock, have high permeability and have holes in the rock which those mean limestone characteristic are usually suitable for water storage. The pores will absorb water better but it can evaporate quickly too. Limestone is lighter because it has a high porosity. The limestone will be built to CaO, the phase mainly in cement by the grain cement is the main phase in 4 phases (often referred to as a potential phase), which phase they will react with water (hydration) to cement features we need such as strength, setting time, spitting out the heat during a reaction and resistance to chemicals. Since the production of cement, limestone is used so many important things to remember are that the consistency of a component or a little of the variance components that can make adjustments to control the quality of ingredients with ease. Many research for limestone strength by using the unconfined compressive test report that the strength at dry condition was higher than at the saturated condition as the result of higher porosity in dry condition than those in saturated condition, however, the saturated condition should provide in the full saturated but they did not mentioned that how long it should take for making the saturated condition. Figure 1: Limestone    Properties of Chalk Stone Chalk rock is a one kind of limestone which is a pure soft limestone. The rock texture is like stone with fine soil which can break and corrode easily as the result of the calcium carbonate crystals with non-bonding or loose since the arrangement of molecular of calcium carbonate and born from the sea as well as limestone. Sometimes, chalk rocks are related as clay but its different by withstand to weathering and less slumping which compare to clay. The chalk rock colours are usually white, soft-grey or soft-yellow and consist of 90-99% of calcite mineral and mixed with a little of silica which naturally occurring by combination of limestone from fossils, dead plants and shells in the sea. The chalk rock was made from the deposit of different bacteria and with calcareous algae and mixed with the sediment of calcite in the shallow water. Often crumbly texture, porosity chalk rock and often contain with fossils of living by the sea. The process of chalk rock is the biochemical or the i norganic chemistry. Chalk rocks have a small pore bulk everywhere that makes porosity of chalk rock up to 50% which called as high porosity rocks, high permeability and low density, hence, it absorb plenty of water within the rock better. Because of it consists of the mainly calcite mineral, it therefore react with acid. Chalk rock stores plenty of water by many pores of the stone. Chalk rocks with varying strength depend on mineral type interface but often have low retention in saturated conditions. The useful of chalk rocks are variety used in many manufactured but commonly used for a manufactured substance such as filler, production of ceramics, cosmetics, plastics, rubber, paints, crayons, plasters, variety of materials for pigment, for engineering used in the process of making mortar, mixed in cement and making a quicklime or lime mortar rather than pure chalk. Many researches of the strength of chalk rock by using the unconfined compressive strength test mentioned that it is generally low compressive strength in dry conditions as it has many pores insides and outsides since its strength was decreased in saturated conditions. As they indicated that chalk rock is a type of very weak rocks as the result of a weak bonding strength and very porosity that water can get in to the rock and stay insides of the rock. Nevertheless, its strength will be various by depending on the source and the weathering that processes the chalk rocks. Figure 2: Chalk stone Porosity and Permeability Porosity is all of the space volume which is not replaced by solids and consists of liquid inside as indicated as the characteristic of the rocks by the ratio of the volume of pore space within the rock mass to the volume of the rock mass by expressed in percentage of pore space in the rock. The degree of porosity is more or less depending on the selected size, shape, matrix, classification of rock type, rock texture, arrangement of sediment, the interface of various sediments together and fractures that occur in the intact rock. High porosity means more than 15 of the percentage of porosity, on the other side, the percentage of porosity of lower than 5 is called as low porosity while the percentage of porosity between 5 and 15 is called as medium porosity. The value of porosity that measurement on rock outside is the same porosity value as inside. In general, pore spaces within sedimentary rock contains of the volume of liquid which is water, sometimes gases, air or oils by depending on the porous of intact rock which called the porosity. The pore space in intact rock is interconnected. The amount of water is usually proportional to porosity of the rocks. Pore spaces can be seen by eyes sometimes but it looks uncertain made by crack, break, water erosion, transmutation or fossils inside before. In the dry conditions, the pore spaces are contained with gases and liquids are absented, on the contrary, gases are absented on the pore space in saturated conditions. The pore space is naturally consisting of the groundwater. High porous rock can store more water inside as the result of the sediments with a good grading in similar size sediment or with a rounded shapes since when sediments fall to deposits will provide more space between the sediment, on the other hand, sediments with the classification of the size of the sediment is not well with both small and large mixed together or with a square shapes so when sediments fall to deposits will lead to less space between the sediment which low porous rocks are made and less storage of water insides. Moreover, if the sediment interface with object coordination occurs, porosity of the intact rock will go down but if the intact rock is eroded or crack in this way it will have a higher porosity. Permeability is stated as a condition to allow absorbing the liquid permeability of the intact rock under differences pressure. The degree of permeability is generally depending on porosity, matrix, size of rock, characteristic of rock, texture of rock, the bonding inside of rock and continuity between the pore spaces such as low porous rock with a large pore spaces and less attractive force between inside of intact rock and water then the movement of water possible through without any trouble. Even if the intact rock is a high porosity but if the pore space of intact rock is small so the water movement possible through very difficult because the attractive force between the inside of intact rock and water are high. Pore spaces within sedimentary rocks occurred by the washing away of matrix that is when groundwater flow through the crack of the rock or the horizontal layers of rock, thereby, the matrix were washed away so that the void of rock will larger by times and store the water inside of pore spaces. Sedimentary rocks with mainly a carbonate minerals are generally having a crystalline texture and a high percentage of porosity due to the both specimen intact rocks which will use in this research project are stated in sedimentary type which mean there both have a high percentage of porosity too i.e. the both intact rocks have higher the percentage of 15 with absorb and store water inside voids of the intact rock better. Porosity of both limestone and chalk rock are usually around 30% and up to 50% respectively. Since the both are high porosity then their permeability is high as well because of the pore insides and the cohesion of the mineral crystal is loose which water can through and store in the intact rock. As can be seen that porosity depend on the texture of rock, matrix, structure of rock and the process of rock made. In additional, the depth can decrease the value of porosity as the deep-depth are lower porosity than the shallow-depth as a result of the pore space is closed by the pressure on the deep-depth. Figure 3: Pore spaces of rock Figure 4: Permeability Strength and Failure in Intact Rocks The strength of rock is ability of rock to resist to maximum stress which the structure of rock is not deformed permanently. In naturally, the intact rock strength depends on the structure of crystalline formations in intact rock which the component of minerals are bonded together. Types of rock strength are compressive strength, tensile strength and shear strength. Compressive strength is commonly representing the strength of rock in order to resist to compressive stress while tensile strength is rarely measured and shear strength is usually used in unconfined condition which it is ability to resist directly to shear stress. If intact rock cannot resist the maximum stresses then it will permanent deformation by this will performed the change of the geological structure that is fault, joint, shear fracture, shear zone, fold, cleavage, foliation and lineation by depending on types of rocks, temperature, water pressure, confining pressure and strain rate. In the other way, if the intact rocks can be stored after the stresses were gone, it called as elastic deformation and cannot change the geological structure and therefore, we cannot analyze the intact rock strain. If the acting force exceeds the capacity of the intact rock on the fragile environmental that frac turing will occurs in intact rock and it lost the intact rock strength. Namely, the fractures are the most effective on the strength of rocks. Figure 5: Shear failure Effect of Water on Rock Strength Nowadays, the effect of water content on the 3 types of strength of rock i.e. compressive strength, tensile strength and shear strength has no certainly theory explanation exactly. However, those theories are used for help us to understand the direction how the water content affect to the intact rock strength which is normally occur in saturated conditions. Many researches before have noted that when the moisture content in intact rocks that it cause to alter the properties of intact rocks and their behavior. Water content is the most influence factor that effect on the strength of intact rocks. In general, the mechanical properties of intact rocks decrease when the moisture content increases. The strength of intact rock will decrease after only 1% of saturated of water. The sensitively of water content on intact rocks depend on the effective porosity that is the intact rocks with high porosity contain more water in pore spaces than the intact rocks with low porosity. However, the strength is not depending on only porosity of intact rock but also various factors such as physical characteristic, saturated condition and nature of formation of intact rock et cetera. The strength of intact rocks is commonly changed in saturated conditions that are when the water contain in the pore spaces of intact rocks and stored inside. Normally, the intact rocks strength in the dry conditions is higher than in saturated conditions as it relates to the water content in the voids. Namely, the strength of intact rock is reduced larger in the saturated conditions usually compressive strength which is the mainly strength of intact rocks. Even if the strength in saturated states is less than in dry states but there are no relationship between them. However, it is not only the compressive strength is changed in the saturated conditions but also the effective normal stress where as the shear stress is unchanged. The pore spaces seem to be significant factor to make the strength changing in saturated conditions by contain water inside by doing this the level of pore-water pressure is raised up too. Particularly, weakened rocks which are rocks with a low pore-water pressure will absorb more water because of high porosity, permeability and saturated that the strength of rock is weaker than those rocks with a high pore-water pressure which is low porosity, permeability and saturated so it will absorb little water. In general, the saturation is the most effective to the amount of pore-water pressure, nevertheless, it still depends on other necessary factors such as porosity, permeability and pressure of acting forces i.e. pressure in deep-depth, lateral pressure or earth pressure. Pore-water pressure usually reduces the effective normal stress and the capacity of shear resistance where as the saturation decreases the cohesion of grain and internal friction of intact rock, in additional, water is effective to greatly reduce the strength of intact rock with high porosity which is commonly a sedimentary rock. When moisture content comprise in intact rock and its increasing will cause not only the pore-pressure is raised up but also the percentage of the porosity of intact rock is raised up higher as well as the value of the permeability, on the other hand, the intact rock lost the cohesion between matrix or grains and cementation, loose the intact rock structures then intact rock is deformed, the friction is reduced, the destruction of chemical of intact rock, the intact rock is eroded and as well as the reduction of the overall strength capacity and the shear resistance. Hence, the overall strength is significant decreased when the intact rock with moisture content. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of intact rocks are generally altering as well as the characteristic of intact rocks by this the intact rock start to crack that reach the rocks failure later on. Unconfined Compressive Strength Test A common strength of intact rock is taken from grains cohesion which is formed by chemical bonds and grains friction which is formed by particle interlocking and surface friction. An unconfined compressive strength used for determine the approximation value of cohesion of grains which this test is used to be widespread to find out the intact rock strength which is the shear resistance without the lateral pressure i.e. in unconfined states. The unconfined compressive strength test has another name called as the uniaxial compressive strength test. In general, this testing is done under the standard of ASTM D2938-86 or ISRM (1972) specification for unconfined compressive strength test. The testing is generally the most commonness and easiest to define the strength of intact rock because of the result gives in conservative values. The testing determine the rock strength which is the maximum stress that crushing the intact rock i.e. an unconfined intact rock fails in shear which is the primary failure of intact rock and the failure of intact rock subject to stress in one direction. Figure 6: Unconfined compressive strength equipment The testing is commonly in two methods which is stress control and strain control but the general method which used in widely is strain control. The strain control method is easier than the stress control because of the unconfined compressive strength test is usually control the strain around the rate of 0.5-2.0 percent per minute. For instance, if the specimen length is 50 millimeter and the strain is controlled at 1% which means the specimen in the compressive strength test is subsided at the rate of 0.5 millimeter per minute and repeatedly until at the desired point or the points of failure in shear. Figure 7: Failure of specimen The unconfined compressive strength should be done quickly approximately 10 minutes in one time because the specimen can alter the moisture content inside, hence, the result of the compressive strength test will be higher than it could be. Figure 8: Unconfined compressive strength test The specimen is commonly chosen as circular cylinder shape with smoothness rather than rectangular prism shape because prevent the edge effects on the specimen. However, the circular cylinder shape is still having an end effects which it is not possible to avoid in the unconfined testing. To preparing the specimen, the standard of the diameter (D) of the circular cylinder shape is not less than 54 millimeter or NX core size and the length (L) are depended on the length/diameter (L/D) ratio of 2-2.5. After getting the specimen then make the specimen with smoothness, flat blade to insult and free from irregularly abruption. The end of specimen must be lapped. Nevertheless, the size of specimen should be equal all the bar lengths with the difference is less than 0.127 millimeter to prevent the irregularities, the vertical axis tilt up not exceed 0.25o by the both ends of a flat parallel difference does not exceed 0.025 millimeter to prevent the both ends lapping. To storing the specimen should be within 30 days to preserve the natural moisture content. Before starting to compression the specimen, the both ends of the specimen lay on the base curve range to force the press to spread across the specimen in the vertical throughout the test. After that the machine will force the press to specimen by compressive strength with the rate of stress should be within the limit of 0.5-1.0 MPa/s until the failure point which is generally take place about 5-15 minutes and the specimen will fracture in shear directions or sometimes, cracking in the vertical axis together. If the ratio of length/diameter (L/D) is less than 2, the results need to be adjusting the values before calculating the compressive strength. The testing must be doing at least 10 of specimen and the time of saturation depends on the diameter of the core rock. Methodology This research project method is relying on the experiment of specimen of the intact rocks which are limestone and chalk rock by using the unconfined compressive strength test in both of dry conditions and saturated conditions to determine the maximum load at failure point which is the result from the measuring instrument on the compressive strength machine after that calculate the effective compressive strength which is derived from the maximum load at failure point divides by the cross-sectional area of the specimen. The amount of specimen will use in this research project on the total of 40 rock cores from 20 of intact limestone and 20 of intact chalk rocks which come from a part of England. The saturated conditions in this research project need to be done under the vacuum at least 24 hours. The value of the effective compressive strength indicates the capacity of the shear resistance at the point of failure. The researcher then tried to compare the compressive strength of both int act rocks which mentioned before and compare the compress strength on intact rock itself between the dry conditions and the saturated conditions. Work Schedule The work schedule of this research project or Gantt chart is illustrated in the chart below. The schedule is indicated the way of this research project will success with the time limited. All the literature review needs to be done in the first two weeks. The experimental work needs to be done the five weeks which is from the third week until the sixth week expect the preparing of the specimens that need to finished in the first week and the analysis of the result data from the testing will start during the test from the fifth week until the seventh week. After that the work will spend on the production of dissertation which will end up at the twelfth week. Conclusion The rocks have several advantages to use in many ways and things while we use as aggregate to mix with cement, mortar to build the building for engineering. The mainly strength of cement or mortar come from rock that means the failure of building leads directly to the failure of rock as well which depends on the strength of rock. The strength of rock which usually means in compression is the capacity of rock to resist failure. The strength is generally decreased when the pore spaces of intact rock consist of the water content. It can be clear that the moisture content leads directly to the rock failure and very significantly to the strength of rock. However, it is not only the moisture content within the intact rock can reach the failure of intact rock but the other factors need also to be comprised with it, for instance, the conditions of the intact rock, porosity, permeability, pore-water pressure et cetera. The condition which reduces the strength of intact rock is mostly in saturated state which is when the water content in the intact rock by compares with dry state. The properties of rock are significant to the rock strength as well as the source of intact rock. Namely, the intact rock with well interconnection of grains or mineral boundaries has the strength greater than the poor properties of intact rock. The properties of intact rock depend on the environmental of the origin and it alters if the physical of intact rock changed which lead to change in mechanical of intact rock. Therefore, the rock with poor arrangement of grains and mineral relates to high porosity that can be stored plenty of water in the pore spaces lead to the strength reduction. As it mentioned that this research project depends on the result of the experimentation which the unconfined compressive strength test is used i.e. compressive strength in only one axis or confinement in one direction to define the effective compressive strength which relates to the shear failure that is the primary state of failure of intact rock in order to understand how the direction of strength of rock when increasing the water content by comparison with both of dry conditions and saturated conditions using the specimen of the intact limestone and the intact chalk stone.   References